Tuesday, January 28, 2020

Zara Organizational Structure

Zara Organizational Structure Structure relates to a skeletal framework of activities and processes in an organisation and specifies the roles of these in achieving goals and objectives of the organisation. According to (Mullins, 2009), a good structure is highly important due to the fact that decisions on structure are primary strategic decisions which can make or break an organisation. One important aspect of a good structure is the human element. Organisation structure should be designed so as to encourage employees and increase the morale and job satisfaction of organisation members which will result to overall organisation efficiency. (Mullins, 2006) describes nine basic considerations in the design of organisation structure. The fundamental step is to define organisational objectives to enable further analysis and comparisons of other forms of structure. Clarification of objectives A clear definition of objectives is vital to provide a framework for the design of structure of an organisation. Organisation objectives provide fundamental schemes for division of labour and creation of group units and sub units. Clearly stated aims and objectives will assist in decisions on the strategy and structural dimension to employ to achieve organisational objectives. Task and element functions Certain functions must be performed in order to produce a good or service, from the development of the good or service to finance of resources used in the complete processing. These functions are referred to as the task functions. The results of the task functions must be coordinated to ensure the efficient achievement of total objectives of the organisation. Element functions refer to vital parts of the management process and are supportive of the task functions such as human resources and public relations. Division of work An organisation needs to accomplish an overall task of allocating many different activities to groups of people or individuals to achieve its objectives. The division of work and grouping together of individuals should be organised according to a basic criterion to establish a coherent link between the activities involved. The division of work and linkage of activities occur in various ways such as specialisation, use of similar resources or common expertise of organisation members as the most commonly used basis for grouping activities. Others include division by product or service, division by location, division by nature of the work performed, division according to common time scales such as shift working, division according to staff employed such as allocation of work based on experience and so on. Centralisation and decentralisation The extent of centralisation or decentralisation refers to the point of critical decision making in an organisation which reflects patterns of authority in a structure. In centralised structures decision making authority is within the power of top management while decentralised structures, decision making authority is delegated (Rollinson, 2005). The arguments in favour of centralisation in an organisation entail the easier implementation of a common policy, easier coordination and management control, preventing sub-units from becoming too independent, over-head cost reduction and faster decision making because of the smaller number of people involved. In contrary, arguments for decentralisation include decisions being made at a point closer to operational levels, increased responsiveness to local circumstances, improved level of personal customer service, more flexible structure, control is distributed more evenly which provides opportunity for development for those lower down, and encouraging effect on motivation and morale of staff. Basically, decentralisation tends to be easier to implement in the private sector organisations than public sector ones where procedures and protocols are the order of the day. Decentralisation being a more flexible approach provides support for employee participation and empowerment at all levels which increases innovation and improves technology while centralisation ensures professionalism in all activities by maintaining effective coordination and overall control of the organisations activities as a whole. A mix of both such as being global and local, practically being decentralised with a central control and authority should produce an organisational advantage. A vivid illustration of decentralisation is the Zara fashion enterprise (cited in Mullins, 2009, p.596), where the company derived its success from integration of design, production, logistics and sales within companies globally rather than separating and outsourcing this different business elements unlike its contemporaries in the fashion industry, while still keeping control of all major operations in Spain. The company rejected rigid organisational structures in favour of a more flexible approach which comes from a highly integrated, fast and efficient form of communication between its global network of outlets and central hub of operations in Spain. The industry average time for introducing a design into the shops is six to nine months; Zara achieves this task in three to four weeks. What is peculiar here is that Zara only makes what is selling at the moment, store assistants and managers constantly get information about what is selling and how quickly it leaves the racks implyin g that local managers have a strong influence on their stores success and thus the company overall. On the other hand, an illustration of centralisation is that of Nissan Motor Company (cited in Certo and Certo, 2006, p.123), a successful global automobile manufacturing company where the new CEO ordered calls for the elimination of 30 per cent of production capacity in Japan due to recent financial difficulties. The CEOs plan is to help reduce expenses as well as close offices in New York and Washington with a view to centralise company operations in Japan to enhance success. Principles of organisation The ten principles of organisation include principles of the objective, specialisation, co-ordination, authority, responsibility, definition, correspondence, span of control, balance and principle of continuity. Span of control This refers to number of subordinates who report directly to a particular manager or supervisor. Span of control is larger at lower levels of the organisation where responsibility is concerned more with the performance of specific tasks. If span of control is too wide, supervising too many subordinates effectively becomes difficult and stressful for managers as well as planning and development, training and control. Narrow span of control may lead to low morale and initiative of subordinates due to close supervision level, and also increase administrative costs. Chain of command This refers to the number of different levels in the structure of the organisation, the chain of hierarchical command. Every employee must know there position within the organisation structure. The combination of chain of command and span of control determines the overall pyramid shape of the organisation and whether the hierarchical structure is flat or tall. Flat hierarchical structure depict a broader span of control and few levels of authority while tall structure depicts narrower spans of control and more levels of authority. There is no ideal hierarchical structure but it is best to have a balance of both. An illustration is Mc Donalds fast-food restaurants (cited in Certo and Certo, 2006, p.236). Mc Donalds decided to reorganise its global senior management team as a reaction to its recent poor financial performance. This involved creating two geographic areas of responsibility. The new positions focuses on managing operations in the Americas while the other in Europe, Asia and the Pacific. The new structure evolved with a view to create clearer lines of responsibility and more focus on the companys financial performance within the territories. The new organisation hierarchy was also aimed at helping the company make business decisions more quickly. Formal organisational relationships This refers to individual authority relationships arising from defined patterns of responsibility in an organisation. This are identified as; line relationships where there is a direct relationship between subordinate and supervisor; functional relationships between people in advisory positions, and line managers and their supervisors; staff relationships are usually personal assistants who exercise only representative authority. Line and staff organisation This provides a means of making full use of specialists while maintaining the concept of line authority. Project team and matrix organisation A project team refers to a separate unit set up temporarily for a particular project which is disbanded when the duration elapses while matrix organisation involves functional departments specialising in numerous activities. In conclusion, the overall effectiveness of the organisation will be influenced both by a healthy structural design, and by the behaviour of people who work within the structure. There are numerous variables and factors which influence the soundest structure. Nothing like a perfect organisation exists but it is crucial to establish a framework of order and system through which organisation activities can be planned, organised, directed and controlled. Since structure divides up the organisation into different parts and specifies what roles these will play in achieving specific aims and objectives, it also provides for control and coordination of the parts to achieve this goals. Basically, the essence of structure is the division of work among organisation members, the coordination of activities and various jobs which are inter-related. References Certo S.C and Certo S.T. (2006) Modern Management. 10th edn. Prentice Hall Mullins, L.J. (2009) Management and Organisational Behaviour. 8th edn. Financial Time Press Rollinson, D. (2005) Organisational Behaviour and Analysis: An Integrated Approach. 3rd edn. Financial Times/ Prentice Hall

Monday, January 20, 2020

Climate Change and Air Pollution in Australia Essay -- Global Warming E

Climate Change and Air Pollution in Australia Air Pollution Fortunately for Alice Springs and much of the Northern Territory, its remote location and low population density mean that the city is not a large source of air pollution. In fact, in a report issued by the Northern Territory Minister of Infrastructure, Planning, and Environment, it is said that while doing testing for the National Environmental Protection Measure the government only tested for particulate matter in Alice Springs, instead of the whole slate of air pollutants, which would have included Carbon Monoxide, Ozone, Sulfur Dioxide, and Nitrogen Dioxide. These other pollutants were not a concern, because of the location and low population density of Alice Springs. While testing for particulate matter, the study found only two days over the entire year where particulate matter levels exceeded the National Environmental Protection Measure standards. This was attributed to bushfires and households burning wood for heat in the winter. Although this particula r study did not test for them, Alice Springs does produce significant amounts of greenhouse gases. In June 2006, the Alice Springs Town Council issued the Local Action Plan to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions, in which they explain how much CO2 the town emitted in 1996, and exactly where the emissions came from. In 1996, the city was responsible for 325,370 tonnes of CO2 emissions. Electricity is responsible for the majority of the emissions, while fossil fuels and waste account for the rest. The Town Council’s plan to reduce these emissions hopes to cut them to 80% of 1996 levels by 2010. They plan to focus on reducing electricity consumption. Within buildings managed by the c... ...n Alice Springs. http://www.alicesprings.nt.gov.au/astc_site/your_council/council_publications/plans/local_action_plan_to_reduce_greenhouse_gas_in_alice_springs. June 2006. Australian Government Department of Climate Change. Australia’s Solar Cities. http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/solarcities/alicesprings/index.html Linacre, E. The last ice age in Australia, New Zealand, and Papua New Guinea. http://www-das.uwyo.edu/~geerts/cwx/notes/chap15/lgm_oz.html Peatling, Stephanie. Australia tops greenhouse pollution index Sydney Morning Herald. 19 June 2004. http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/06/18/1087245110190.html Vatskalis, Kon. Report to the NEPC on the implementation of the National Environment Protection (Ambient Air Quality) Measure for the Northern Territory. http://www.ephc.gov.au/pdf/annrep_01_02/179-181_Jur_Rep_AAQ_NT.pdf

Sunday, January 12, 2020

Into the Nature of Relationships in Different Cultures

Relationships Discuss research into the nature of relationships in different cultures. (9 marks + 16 marks) In Western Cultures, it has been found that relationships are voluntary, temporary and focus on the needs of the individual as due to the predominantly urban settings in which we live in, we are able to (on a daily basis) interact with a large number of people. Western cultures therefore appear to be characterised by a high degree of choice in personal relationships and a greater ‘pool’ of potential relationships.Non-western cultures however, have less choice about whom they interact with on a daily basis, meaning that interaction with strangers are rare and relationships are frequently tied to other factors, such as family or economic resources. In societies with reduced mobility, (predominantly non-western cultures) arranged marriages are common as love is expected to grow due to the fact that it is not seen as necessary for marriage.Arranged marriages seem to wo rk well and make good sense as divorce rates are low and Epstein (2002) found that perhaps about half of them report that they have fallen in love with each other. Myers et al. , (2005) studied individuals in India living in arranged marriages and found no differences in marital satisfaction in comparison to individuals in non-arranged marriages in the US. This is also supported by Gupta and Singh (1982) who studied 100 degree-educated couples living in India, 50 of who had chosen their partners and 50 of who had their marriages arranged for them.The couples were asked to indicate how much they liked/loved their partners and it was found that love and liking was high in love marriages but decreased whereas love increased in arranged marriages and after 10 years exceeded love marriages. However, this study is difficult to generalise as it studies only a small sample and so cannot be generalised to the wider population. It therefore lacks validity. However, in some adapting cultures s uch as China, there has been a noticeable increase in ‘love matches’ as the Chinese are currently attempting to move away from traditional ‘arranged’ marriages.Instances in which parents dominate the process of partner choice in china have declined from 70% prior to 1949, to less than 10% in the 1990s. Xioahe and Whyte (1990) studied women in love marriages and found that they were more satisfied than those in arranged marriages. Western cultures are also seen as individualistic due to their focuses on individuals rather than groups, with individual happiness and pleasure seen as fundamentally important. On the other hand, non-western cultures are seen as collectivist cultures as people are encouraged to be interdependent rather than independent.Moghaddam et al. (1993) claim that the cultural attitudes of individualist cultures, are consistent with the formation of relationships that are based on freedom of choice, whereas collectivism leads to relationship s that may have more to do with the concerns of family or group. Norms and rules act as guidelines for behaviour and influence how we act out any given relationship. One such norm that plays a key part in personal relationships is the norm of reciprocity.Ting-Toomey (1986) found that in individualist cultures, reciprocity in personal relationships tend to be voluntary. In collectivist cultures however, it is more obligatory. In such cultures, failure to return a favour is seen as a failure of one’s moral duty. In Japanese culture, for example, there are specific rules about gift-giving and reciprocating, whereas n such formal norms exist in Western cultures. Argyle et al. ’s cross-cultural comparison of relationship rules in different cultures did find support for some predictions but failed to support others.However, a problem with this research is that the list of rules was formulated in the UK and may have failed to include rules that are specific to a particular cu lture such as Japan. Research on cross-cultural differences in norms and rules is important to be able to conduct cross-cultural relationships successfully. Knowledge of the norms and rules underlying cross-cultural relationships is an important aspect of any attempt to understand and improve relations between different cultural groups within a host country. Finally, relationships are difficult to study scientifically.Laboratory experiments, through the manipulation of isolated variables, are seen as the most rigorous way of establishing cause and effect, and he best way of furthering our understanding of the processes involved in human relationships. However, as Hogg and Vaughan (2008) point out, people do bring their cultural ‘baggage’ into the laboratory. Although cultural background may be seen as a problematic extraneous variable to some researchers, it is clear that culture itself is an important variable that influences the relationship processes being studied.

Friday, January 3, 2020

Poverty And How People With Poverty Suffer Real...

As a college student pursuing a career, I found it interesting to research the topic of poverty and how people with poverty suffer real psychological issues. Psychology class made me think about problems in a different perspective. Poverty is a serious societal problem that people struggle with everyday with out knowing how much of a psychological toll it takes on these people. It only gets harder as they dig themselves a hole they cannot climb out of. Although some social, economic, and political forces do drive these people in the ground, it is vital to know the psychological roles that play part. Psychological concepts and theories such as self-worth and psychological empowerment have a big role in helping people in poverty. It all starts with a healthy lifestyle and environment. When walking down the streets of Chicago, I began to realize from a mental aspect of how hard it must be for people in poverty to struggle with everyday life situations. When a person lives in pover ty, living conditions put the individual at very low risk of living. Poor mental heath is both a cause and consequence of poverty. Poor mental health leads to an inadequate access to simple health tips, lack of education, and a loss of societal norms. Theses causes often lead to very high levels of stress, depression, anxiety, and insecurity. People on the streets live an unhealthy lifestyle, physically and mentally. Psychological disorders such as depression, anti-social personalityShow MoreRelatedSexual Assault Prevention Seminar For College Students Essay1220 Words   |  5 PagesViolence against women is defined as any act of gender-based violence that results in or is likely to result in—physical, sexual/psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of acts such as coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private. Its dimensions include physical, sexual, psychological/emotional and economic violence occurring in t he family. Violence against women includes domestic violence, child marriage, forced pregnancy, and otherRead MoreDomestic Violence is a Global Issue1347 Words   |  5 PagesDomestic Violence (DV) is a critical social issue that negatively impacts not only our own culture in America but as well as all other cultures around the world. Domestic Violence is a global issue reaching across national boundaries as well as socio-economic, cultural, racial and class distinctions (Kaur Garg 2008). Domestic Violence is a serious problem that can be seen around every society from families of both developed and underdeveloped countries and of different backgrounds. Although thereRead MoreAntisocial Personality Disorders among Criminals1000 Words   |  4 Pageswhich innocent people are effected by disorders from criminals are diverse, with some actually losing their lives and loved ones. This report it will include: signs of antisocial personality disorders among criminals, testing, the trig ger of these criminals to act out, causes, statics, treatment and how people around the criminal are affected by the antisocial personality disorders. There is always symptoms with an issue such as a car problem, the common cold, diseases, and psychological problems. AlthoughRead MoreCauses And Effects Of Child Abuse1565 Words   |  7 Pagesmore are at risk. The majority of victims suffer from neglect, but some children also endure the effects of physical, psychological, or sexual abuse. Child abuse results in several social, emotional and psychological problems. This essay will discuss the causes and effects of child abuse as well as provide suggestions to assist the victims and finally the consequences on the abusers. In the United Stated, the problem was first identified as a major issue when in 1962 C Henry Kempe conducted aRead MoreChild Abuse Prevention And Treatment Act1605 Words   |  7 Pagesany sexual action from a caretaker with a youth. Emotional maltreatment is identified as a behavior of child abuse that affects life, social, or psychological social skills of a child (Corby- Brian 5). We can categorize the roots reasons of child abuse into three unalike parts: ecological causes, parental causes, and child problems. Besides these issues, child abuse also has dangerous impacts to other parts of the kid’s life, for example: behavior effects, physical effects and emotional effects (Corby-BrianRead MoreA Study On Child Poverty Essay2778 Words   |  12 PagesBN508000 Sociology for Nurses Course Coordinator: Jude Roddick Essay topic: Child poverty in New Zealand â€Å"High rates of child poverty are a cause for concern, as low family income has been associated with a range of negative health, education, justice, labour market and social outcomes. Negative health outcomes include low birth weight, infant mortality, poorer mental health and cognitive development, and hospital admissions from a variety of causes† (Craig, Reddington, Wicken, Oben Simpson,Read MorePremarital Sex1352 Words   |  6 PagesPremarital Sex What are the consequences of premarital sex? How does it affect children who are born out of wedlock? Should there be consequences for having children out of wedlock? These questions plague America today as more and more people choose to disregard long-standing social traditions of abstaining from sex until marriage. Since the Sexual Revolution, attitudes about sex have changed dramatically. Gone are the days when it was a social norm to marry and then have sex which naturallyRead MorePyc4811 Assignment 11430 Words   |  6 Pages Introduction Community Psychology and Public Health models both cover the same ground but with key differences in the explanation of causes and influences on mental illness. Community psychology has a primary focus on understanding, and working with, people in their wider social context. Public Health on the other hand is concerned with preventing disease and distress of all forms before they occur (Tutorial Letter 102 for PYC4811, 2015). It attempts through scientific investigation to understand suchRead MoreVeteran Mental Illness and System Justification Theory1461 Words   |  6 PagesFinally, the legal battle for mental health parity in the United States represents another example of inequality (Rovner Cornish, 2013). If system justification results in stereotypes that justify unequal treatment, it is not surprising that people with mental illness often do not engage in mental health care. This becomes even less surprising when one delves a little deeper into the theory. According to theorists, increased system justification will cause a stigmatized group to internalizeRead MorePrescription Medications And Illicit Drugs Essay1706 Words   |  7 PagesDrugs in the United States are a complex issue that ranges from legal, over-the-counter and prescription medications to illicit substances that are highly addictive. While many people have a legitimate need for medication to function on a daily basis, there are also many incidences where these potentially helpful drugs are abused. When legal medications are abused, they cause the same personal, social and economic problems as illicit substances. This paper will look at the use of both prescription